What does it mean to be an adult?”-Human developmental point of view

Introduction

What does it mean to be an adult? From a human developmental perspective, this question could be explored in several ways. This essay will first define what constitutes adulthood. It will then describe three major milestones of becoming an adult and relating them to different areas of development, including social, cognitive, and moral. Following this, the essay will discuss the key issues with social and cultural influences on the process of transitioning to adulthood. Finally, the discussion will conclude with an overall evaluation.

Understanding and definition of being an adult

Adulthood is commonly defined through three major abilities: accepting responsibility, making independent decisions, and being financially independent (Neal, 2018;Robert & Cavanaugh, 2003). To attain these capacities, the individuals should reach a certain level of cognitive and psychological maturity, as well as develop resilience (Halfon, 2018).

The span from young adulthood to late adulthood encompasses substantial social changes. Compared with previous generations, the process of transitioning from childhood adult independence has become longer and more complex (Neal, 2018). For example, while many young people now achieved post-secondary education, a lack of work experience and limited skills after graduation often hinder their ability to cover living costs, delaying full independence. This phenomenon has been described as emerging adulthood (Neal, 2018).

One of the most widely used criteria for determining whether an individual has reached adulthood is the assumption of new responsibilities and duties, known as role transition (Robert & Cavanaugh, 2003, p.375). However, stagnation of wages for low-skilled workers and the lack of work opportunities for youth and young adults, combined with the rising costs of education and independent living, have further complicated the pathway to independence, described as emerging adulthood (EA) as a distinct stage in the life course (Halfon, 2018, p,123). As Erikson (1986, cited in Butterbaugh et al., 2020, p. 34) reinforced the recognition that both adolescence and emerging adulthood represent a time of transition that bridge the dependency of childhood and the autonomy of adult­hood.

Three major milestones to becoming an adult

Certain role transitions are widely recognised as key markers of adulthood, including completing education, beginning full-time employment, establishing and independent household, getting married, and becoming a parent (Hogan & Astone, 1986 cited in Robert & Cavanaugh, 2003, p. 375).

Milestone 1: Financial independence

Having a personal sense of financial independence through entering the workforce is regarded as an important milestone in the transition to adulthood. This shifts represents the movement from parental support to self-support and is frequently identified by emerging adults as a central indicator that they have entered adulthood (Arnett 2000 cited in Butterbaugh et al., 2020, p. 34).

To achieve financial independence rather than depending on their parents or other caregivers, an individual’s financial well-being (FWB) is shaped by early childhood consumer experiences (ECCE) and financial socialization(FS) (Gudmunson, et al, 2019; Kaur,& Singh,2025; Obi-Anike, 2023; Pak et al., 2024; Ullah & Yusheng,2020). Kegan and Lahey, 2009). Danes (1994) defines financial socialisation as “a process of acquiring and developing values, attitudes, standards, norms, knowledge, and behaviors that contribute to the financial viability and individual well-being” (p. 128).

According to family socialisation theory, the parent-child relationship influences the individual’s later financial behaviours as children spends much of their time with their parents observing how parents manage money (Danes,1994;Gudmunson, 2011). Consistent with this, Kaur (2025) emphasised that positive financial behaviours established early in life are associated with positive financial well-being in adulthood.

Milestone 2: Establishing solid interpersonal relationships

Compared with adolescence, most adults place greater value on forming close interpersonal relationships as these connections and networking provide the social support towards independence (Kendra, 2024). Wood et al. (2018) similarly emphasised that social support and resources are key factors in both emerging adulthood and later adulthood.

According to Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, in stage 6 (Intimacy vs isolation, age 19 – 29 years old), individuals develop the virtue of love through positive experiences of having a close relationship. Achieving this virtue enables individuals to to establish trustworthy and respectful relationships (McLeod, 2025).

However, many young adults encounter difficulties at this stage. Fear of rejection, low confidence, or experiences of abandonment can hinder the ability to form meaningful bonds. Positive self-beliefs, such as “I can be loved by others,” foster self-efficacy and support successful navigation of this stage (Kendra, 2024). 

Bandura’s social learning theory further highlights the role of self-efficacy in interpersonal development. According to Bandura (2012), “Self-efficacy beliefs affect the quality of human functioning through cognitive, motivational, affective, and decisional processes” (p,13). Riggio et al. (2011) also observed that self-efficacy is closely linked to social behaviors and interactions, shaping quality of interpersonal relationships. Thus, mature adults with high self-efficacy in their developmental stage are suggested to be better equipped to establish close relationships with others.

Milestone 3: Decision-making skills

Decision-making is a fundamental skill in adulthood, as independent individuals are required to make decisions in daily life (Brand & Markowitsch, 2010). Scholz et al. (2024) found that adults demonstrate more effective decision-making compared to adolescents, partly due to developmental advances in flexibility and planning. However, decision-making abilities vary by context. For instance, Van Duijvenvoorde et al. (2010) noted that “Adolescents demonstrate impaired decision-making in emotionally arousing situations, yet they appear to exhibit relatively mature decision-making skills in predominately cognitive, low-arousal situations. (p,539)”. These findings suggest that maturity in decision-making is linked not only to cognitive development but also to the regulation of emotional arousal.

Jin et al. (2019) argued that older adults search for less information compared to younger people because they rely on accumulated life experiences and personal strategies to make decisions. In addition, some studies showed that adults demonstrate greater internal consistency across component tasks. Their knowledge and life experiences enable them to be more selective, domain-specific, and automised in their conflict solution (Bruin et al., 2007; Finucane et al.,2005).

What role does moral reasoning play in adult decision-making? According to Kohlberg’s moral development theory, individuals in level 2 (conventional morality) move from  adolescence into adulthood by learning to understand and accept social rules, developing moral standards (Kendra,2025). As Kohlberg and Hersh (1977, p.56) explained, “The principle central to the development of stages of moral judgment, and hence to proposals for moral education, is that of justice. Justice, the primary regard for the value and equality of all human beings and for reciprocity in human relations, is a basic and universal standard.”  

Identify key issues with social and cultural perspectives

Butterbaugh et al. (2020) argued that the development of belief systems about money links to cultural discourses because it shapes the meaning of money both at the individual and family levels. Cultural experiences of money also play a role in defining what is means to achieve financial independence. Family and cultural factors influence the way individuals interacts with significant others, such as family and friends who share similar perspectives.

When young people go through the transition period to adulthood, they have new experiences such as school, work, and intimate relationships. Lee and Waithaka (2017) emphasized the role of social support and resources in this period, while also noting the influence of past adverse childhood experiences. For example, Cui et al. (2008) showed that individuals who experienced their parents' separation were at a higher risk of having relationship issues and divorce.

In addition, evidence suggests that adverse childhood experiences increase the risk of damaging neurodevelopment of an individual, including risk for cognitive and emotional maladjustment. According to Bick and Nelson (2016) study, the data showed that these experiences disrupt brain development, which may impair emotional and cognitive functions that depend on their age of onset, frequency, severity, and duration.

It is important to find identity development because being an independent adult means they should understand their belief systems. Lerner et al. (2002) discussed identity development in adolescence and emerging adulthood. They said that identity development happens in a number of dimensions, including psychological, personal, social, and behavioral dimensions. They also explained that the community-sanctioned roles are required to develop their identity.

Limitations and Conclusion

This essay discussed the definition and understanding of being an adult, and then discussed the three milestones with framed by the developmental factors, as well as the social and cultural influence factors are argued as well. However, there were some limitations and weaknesses in different points of view.

Kegan’s cognitive development theory described that an individual’s journey in the developmental stages involves transitioning from the subconscious to the conscious level, and this will assist the person to perceive themselves and their interaction with others. However, how does a person see the progress? In fact, Girgis et al. (2018) pointed out that when a person is struggling to move to the next stage, they are required to have various perceptions and notions from subject to object, which will be able to contribute to psychological distress.

In addition, Kegan suggests that, only 65 % of adults can be reach stage 4 (Skezak, 2025). Furthermore, according to Kohlberg, only 10-15% of the population achieved the advanced level of moral reasoning (postconventional morality) as this level requires the ability for concrete thinking necessary in stages 5 or 6 (McLeod, 2025). The definition and understandings of being an adult raised a broader question: how to define a mature adult, not only being an adult.

When Kohlberg argued that individuals’ belief systems should override social, cultural and legal perspectives, Kohlberg’s theory does not consider relationships, affiliation, or justice. His theory faced criticism for focusing on only white males in the United States and underestimating women’s abilities of moral reasoning (Kendra,2025; Worthy et al., 2025). These critiques highlight the difficulties of applying his model universally despite the challenge of fully accounting for social and cultural influences in developmental theory. From the above discussion of the importance of social support and resources, the current studies could not identify which social structures belong as mechanisms of social stratification when considering an individual’s internal development and interactions. In addition, Lee and Waithaka (2017) questioned how to consider the social status, ethnicity, immigration status, and gender.

To consider the lifestyle change from the cultural and social point of view, marriage and being a parent are not necessary milestones. Today, some young people spend more time on their education and need longer or extra financial support from their parents and family, which leads to a delayed marriage and parenthood (Gills, 2025; Psychology Today, 2025; Psychology Writing, 2023). However, it is not necessary to marry and be a parent to be called an adult anymore. In reality, increasing numbers of adults decide not to be parents and now it is more widely accepted and supported by society (Gills, 2025).

I noticed that the essay didn't cover the influence of AI on human relationships. Many individuals are now using AI as companions, which is reshaping our relationships, including intimacy and emotional well-being. As AI becomes more integrated into our daily lives, it has the potential to significantly alter the nature of our current relationships (Jaffe, 2025).

For future research, after considering these limitations and weaknesses, it would be beneficial to explore contemporary definitions and understandings of adulthood. Such research would would benefit from examining recent educational, financial, cultural, social, and philosophical shifts to identify new milestones and related developmental factors associated that more accurately reflect the realities of becoming an adult in today's world.

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